Herman, J. (2005). Thwarting expectations: Assignments from a critical thinking class. New Directions for Community Colleges, 130(Summer 2005), 69-77.

Challenged by unconventional assignments, students examine untested assumptions and in the process become better critical thinkers.

Nosich, G.M. (2005). Problems with two standard models for teaching critical thinking. New Directions for Community Colleges, 130(Summer 2005), 59-66.

Two common models of teaching critical thinking in a discipline fail to do justice to the essential role critical thinking plays in all learning or to its role in the discipline as a whole. This chapter describes a model that emphasizes a more central role for critical thinking in shaping all course activity and in focusing on the most fundamental and powerful discipline-based concepts.

Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering critical thinking through effective pedagogy: Evidence from four institutional case studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 73(6), 740-763.

Analysis of interview and classroom observation data collected through four institutional case studies reveals some consistent findings regarding how writing assignments and class discussions can be made conducive to critical thinking development.

Tsui, L. (2000). Effects of campus culture on students' critical thinking. The Review of Higher Education, 23(4), 421-441.

This study examines how campus culture is related to the development of students' abilities to think critically by analyzing qualitative data gathered at four strategically chosen case study institutions. Three elements are influential: the nature of an institution's epistemological orientation; its ability to instill responsibility and self-reflection in students; and fostering social and political awareness in them.

Hagedorn, L.S., Pascarella, E.T., Edison, M., Braxton, J., Nora, A., & Terenzini, P.T. (1999). Institutional context and the development of critical thinking: A research note. The Review of Higher Education, 22(3), 265-285.

This study sought to determine if the average level of student critical thinking at a college (i.e., the institutional context) influenced individual students' critical thinking skills. Analyses were based on the data from 23 highly diverse two- and four-year institutions participating in the National Study of Student Learning with controls for 15 potentially confounding influences. The findings were modestly positive for students completing their first year but insignificant by the end of the third year.

Tsui, L. (1999). Courses and instruction affecting critical thinking. Research in Higher Education, 40(2), 185-200.

This study investigated how different types of courses and instructional techniques affect students' self-reported growth in critical thinking. Data are drawn from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program's 1989 Follow-Up Survey of 24,837 students who had first entered college as freshmen in1985. Results revealed that taking writing courses, interdisciplinary courses, history courses, science courses, women's studies courses, math courses, foreign language courses, ethnic studies courses, and enrolling in an honors program are each positively associated with self-reported growth in critical thinking. Moreover, self-reported growth in critical thinking is positively related to having a paper critiqued by an instructor, conducting an independent research project, working on a group project, giving a class presentation, and taking essay exams, but negatively related to taking multiple-choice exams. Overall findings, however, suggest that the impact of classroom experiences on students' abilities to think critically is far weaker than one might expect or hope.

Astin, A.W. (1993). What matters in college: Four critical years revisited. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

From the author of Four Critical Years - a book the Journal of Higher Education called the most cited work in higher education literature - What Matters in College? presents the definitive study of how students change and develop in college and how colleges can enhance that development. Based on a study of more than 20,000 students, 25,000 faculty members, and 200 institutions, the book shows how academic programs, faculty, student peer groups, and other variables affect students' college experiences.

Norman, G.R., & Schmidt, H.G. (1992). The psychological basis of problem-based learning: A review of the evidence. Academic Medicine, 67(9), 557-565.

A review of experimental evidence concerning the effectiveness of problem-based learning suggests that the approach may not improve content-free problem solving; may initially reduce learning levels but foster long-term retention; may enhance transfer of concepts and integration of concepts into clinical problems; enhances intrinsic interest of subject matter; and enhances self-directed learning.